Cranioscopic methods for determining human sex using the skull

The aim of this study was to systematize modern craniological methods for determining sex using the skull and evaluate their diagnostic effectiveness, taking into account the introduction of digital technologies and machine learning methods. Classical morphoscopic approaches (V.N. Zvyagin’s method, J. Buikstra and D. Ubelaker’s diagram), 3D modeling, computed tomography, and machine learning algorithms were considered. A comprehensive approach combining classical methods with modern technologies, taking into account population characteristics, is recommended.