Cradle‐to‐grave life cycle assessment of a 1 kWp stand‐alone PV system with Li‐ion ( LFP ) storag

Abstract

Stand‐alone photovoltaic systems are increasingly promoted as low‐carbon solutions for unreliable electricity supply in Nigeria, but their full environmental performance remains uncertain when battery storage, replacements, transport, and end‐of‐life treatment are included. This study conducted a cradle‐to‐grave life cycle assessment of a 1 kWp stand‐alone PV system with lithium iron phosphate (LFP) battery storage, using Oleh, Delta State, Nigeria, as the main case study and then other parts across the country for comparison. The functional unit was 1 kWh of delivered electricity, and impacts were assessed using IPCC 2021, IMPACT World+ v2.1, and ReCiPe 2016 Midpoint (H). For Oleh, cradle‐to‐grave climate‐change intensities were 0.266, 0.268, and 0.272 kg CO ₂ ‐eq/kWh, respectively. Installed and replacement components contributed about 97% of total life‐cycle impacts, while end‐of‐life accounted for about 3%. Across six Nigerian locations, IMPACT World+ results ranged from 0.231 to 0.268 kg CO ₂ ‐eq/kWh, mainly due to differences in lifetime electricity delivery. Compared with VRLA storage, the Li‐ion system reduced climate‐change impact by about 37%. The study concludes that battery longevity, replacement frequency, storage sizing, and system utilization are critical for improving stand‐alone PV sustainability in Nigeria.