Connectivity Barriers and Spatial Inequality in Livelihood Assets under Rapid Urban Expansion: Evidence from a Secondary City in Northwest Ethiopia

The accelerated pace of urban expansion has become a fundamental driver of rural–urban transformations in developing countries, often resulting in uneven access to infrastructure, services, and economic opportunities. This study examines the association between multidimensional connectivity barriers and spatial inequalities in livelihood assets in Debre Markos and its surrounding peri-urban areas in northwest Ethiopia. A mixed-methods approach was employed to analyse spatial accessibility and livelihood asset outcomes across urban, transitional, and peripheral zones. The results show substantial spatial disparities in accessibility, with 56% of the study area categorised as moderately accessible, 35% as poorly accessible, and only 9% as highly accessible. A corresponding spatial gradient is also observed in the mean livelihood asset index, increasing from 0.33 in low-accessibility areas to 0.45 in medium-accessibility zones and 0.53 in high-accessibility settings. One-way ANOVA confirms statistically significant differences among spatial zones (F (2, 379) = 150.98, p < 0.001). Regression analysis further indicates a significant association between road network density and livelihood asset outcomes (R ² = 0.422), highlighting the close association between connectivity and spatial inequality. The findings demonstrate that connectivity barriers operate as an interconnected system, where inadequate infrastructure, high transportation costs, and unequal service delivery are collectively associated with differences in access to resources and opportunities. This study contributes by integrating spatial accessibility modelling with household-level livelihood asset analysis to examine spatial inequalities in livelihood assets and inform sustainable rural–urban connectivity strategies for rapidly expanding secondary cities.