Chlorogenic Acid-Rich Fraction from Green Coffee Beans and Its Combination with Paclitaxel Attenuate Porphyromonas gingivalis LPS-Stimulated Esophageal Squamous Cell Carcinoma Related to the NF-ĸB and p38 Pathways

Esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC) is linked to Porphyromonas gingivalis (Pg). Pg lipopolysaccharide (LPS-PG) triggers inflammatory responses contributing to cancer progression. Paclitaxel (PTX) is frequently used in combination regimens for ESCC therapy. This study aimed to investigate the role of a chlorogenic acid (CGA)-rich fraction from green coffee bean extract, known as the ethyl acetate-insoluble fraction (EIF), in inflammatory responses and cancer progression in LPS-PG-triggered ESCC (KE5 and T.T cells), as well as its combination with PTX. Both EIF and pure CGA were assessed for their effects on LPS-pretreated ESCC cell lines. Cell survival, adhesion, migration, and invasion assays were performed. Key inflammatory and metastatic mediators were measured using Western blotting, ELISA, and zymography. The study also examined the effects of combining PTX with EIF. Our results showed that LPS-PG stimulated inflammatory responses and malignant phenotypes in ESCC. EIF effectively diminished these effects by involving the NF-κB and p38 MAPK pathways. Furthermore, in T.T cells, the combination of EIF (25 μg/mL) and PTX (3 μg/mL) reduced the expression of cancer- and inflammation-related markers compared with PTX alone, without further reducing cell viability. Therefore, EIF represents a candidate agent, either alone or in combination with PTX, to attenuate Pg-driven ESCC progression.