Ceramic Raw Materials and Technological Choices in Iron Age Tyre (Lebanon): A Multiproxy, Fabric‐Based Approach

ABSTRACT

This study presents a systematically integrated, multiproxy characterisation of Iron Age ceramics from Tyre (Lebanon). Ninety‐nine ceramic samples from stratified Iron Age contexts on Tyre's Acropolis, together with a small Late Bronze Age and raw‐clay reference set, were analysed using petrography, microfossil identification, X‐ray diffraction (XRD), portable X‐ray fluorescence (pXRF) and Fourier‐transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). Petrographic analysis defines four coherent paste groups reflecting both broadly shared fabric traditions and function‐specific technological adaptations. Microfossil assemblages with the Middle Eocene planktonic foraminifera   anchor the ceramic raw materials within the Eocene carbonate–marl formations exposed in and around Tyre. XRD constrains mineralogical variability within a predominantly calcareous ceramic tradition, whereas FTIR indicates predominantly low‐ to moderate‐temperature firing, with a small number of specimens showing evidence compatible with higher temperature thermal transformation and subsequent recarbonation. pXRF indicates broad chemical coherence across the assemblage, with only a small number of compositionally divergent specimens, some corresponding to petrographic deviations. Taken together, the results document a locally grounded ceramic production system characterised by long‐term technological stability combined with targeted recipe adjustments in response to functional and social demands during the Iron Age.