Calculation Strategies Among Primary School Students: Understanding Individual Differences and Identifying the Early Signs of Arithmetic Difficulties

The present study examined the use of calculation strategies from first to second grade and non-numerical risk factors for arithmetical difficulties (AD). Students ( N  = 198) were grouped as follows based on their arithmetic performance in the third grade: AD and average- or high-achieving (AA/HA) students. Additionally, catch-up (CU) students were identified based on dysfluency in the first grade but typical performance in the third grade. Compared to the AA/HA group, the AD group relied more on counting strategies, while the AA/HA group used more fact retrieval. The AD and CU groups differed in reading fluency, visuospatial memory and reasoning abilities. The study concluded that, besides calculation strategies, early reading and cognitive skills can help identify students at risk for more persistent arithmetic difficulties.