Bio-Based Scaffolds in Tissue Engineering: From Biomaterial Design and Functionalization to Clinical Translation

Bio-based scaffolds are being investigated in tissue engineering because they can provide temporary support for tissue repair while offering biocompatibility and biodegradability. A scaffold need not rely solely on the properties of its starting material: surface treatments, bioactive compounds, therapeutic agents, nanoscale constituents and delivery systems can provide further functions. The discussion begins with the main categories of bio-based scaffolds and considers how functionalization alters their biological and therapeutic behaviour. Particular attention is paid to the effects of these modifications on cell attachment and growth, differentiation, blood-vessel formation, immune activity, matrix remodelling and the development of functional tissue. The path from laboratory research to clinical use is considered in terms of consistent and scalable manufacture, sterilisation, safety, regulatory assessment, clinical evidence and cost. Developments in computational modelling, artificial intelligence, advanced biomanufacturing, responsive biomaterials and precision regenerative medicine are examined as possible ways forward. Introducing several functions into one scaffold may address different regenerative needs, but the resulting complexity can make production, quality assurance and regulatory assessment harder. Future development must weigh regenerative performance against the need for a product that can be reproduced, used safely and implemented in practice. By linking scaffold selection and functionalization with biological performance and translational considerations, this review provides an integrated perspective on the development of bio-based scaffolds for regenerative medicine.