Beyond Source Restrictions: Combined Mitigation Strategies Substantially Reduce Emissions and Exposure of Intentionally Added Microplastics in the UK

Abstract

Microplastics are of environmental and public health concern due to their ubiquitous presence across ecosystems, persistence, and potential for toxicity. Among the various sources of microplastic pollution, those intentionally added to products represent a priority target for mitigation, as they can be regulated at source to reduce environmental releases. This study quantifies emissions of intentionally added microplastics in the United Kingdom from the onset of their use in key product categories through to 2043, combining historic estimates with future projections (2024–2043). Risk management options (RMOs) are evaluated for their emission reduction potential and cost-effectiveness. The analysis covers changes in product usage over time, the contribution of each sector to overall emissions, and the implications for environmental exposure. Results indicate that agricultural soils are the dominant receiving environment, mainly due to wastewater treatment delays sludge application, followed by urban soils, driven largely by losses from synthetic sports surfaces, the largest overall emission source. Exposure modelling shows substantial buildup in soils and sediments over time, with freshwater sediments and urban soils reaching the highest predicted concentrations. Broad use-based restrictions provide the greatest exposure reductions, while targeted measures deliver compartment-specific benefits, alongside potential co-benefits such as the reduction of exposure from other contaminants. These findings provide an integrated evidence base to support targeted, sector-specific interventions and guide U.K. policy development to reduce microplastic pollution and protect ecosystem and human health.