Bacterial Cellulose: A Sustainable Platform for Fabricating Advanced Carbon Electrodes

ABSTRACT

The global shift toward sustainable energy storage solutions has highlighted bacterial cellulose (BC) as a renewable, biodegradable biopolymer for fabricating advanced carbon nanostructures. This review examines the microbial synthesis, optimization, thermochemical conversion, and applications of BC‐derived carbon materials in next‐generation electrochemical energy storage (EES) devices, with comprehensive coverage of both battery and supercapacitor applications (2014–2025). BC, primarily produced by Komagataeibacter species via a multistep enzymatic pathway, offers high purity, crystallinity, and a unique 3D nanofibrous network. Production challenges can be addressed using low‐cost agro‐industrial wastes and optimizing fermentation parameters (pH 4.0–7.5, temperature 25°C–32°C, enhanced aeration). Conversion via pyrolysis (400°C–1000°C) or hydrothermal carbonization (180°C–280°C) yields high‐surface‐area carbon materials (SSA, 2161 m ² g ⁻¹ ). Physical or chemical activation enhances porosity, while graphitization (Fe, Ni) and heteroatom doping (N, S, P) improve conductivity and pseudocapacitance, enabling supercapacitor electrodes with 420 F g ⁻¹ and 96.1% retention after 10 000 cycles, and battery anodes exceeding 1506 mAh g ⁻¹ and 99.1% retention after 200 cycles. Unlike prior reviews that treat BC production and carbon performance separately, this work uniquely integrates the complete value chain, from microbial synthesis and waste valorization to carbon engineering and device performance, and incorporates bibliometric analysis to map research evolution and identify emerging frontiers. Future prospects emphasize scalability through waste valorization, structural engineering, and multifunctional devices for wearable and postlithium systems. This review underscores BC's role in bridging biomass valorization with advanced electrochemical technologies, with particular emphasis on battery and supercapacitor applications.