Apprehensive or Motivational Threat? Examining the Effects of Inoculation, Threat Generation, Counterarguing, and Information Processing on Disinformation Belief

Using a nationally representative U.S. adult sample ( n =1,150), this study compares technique-based and primarily fact-based forewarning messages on threat perceptions, counterarguing, and belief in COVID-19 and genetically modified organism (GMO) disinformation. It finds apprehensive threat crucial for psychological resilience in both message types, while motivational threat lacks influence. In addition, individuals engaging in defensive information processing benefit less from inoculation messages, underscoring the need for tailored interventions. This research advances understanding of inoculation theory by clarifying the mechanisms that build resistance to science-related disinformation.