Anti-Inflammatory Bioactivity of Lilium Flowers: Comparisons across Species and Developmental Stages with Mechanistic Insights

Abstract

Although Lilium bulbs have been extensively studied for their phytochemical composition and pharmacological activities, the in vivo bioactivities of Lilium flowers from different species and developmental stages remain poorly understood. In this study, the anti-inflammatory activities of fully bloomed flowers from three Lilium species were first evaluated using a zebrafish inflammation model, followed by a comparative assessment of different developmental stages of Lilium lancifolium. Among the three species, L. lancifolium showed the most pronounced suppression of reactive oxygen species (ROS), nitric oxide (NO), and pro-inflammatory cytokines, accompanied by increased interleukin-10 (IL-10). Within L. lancifolium, green buds showed the strongest effects on ROS and NO reduction, together with selective cytokine modulation, whereas full-bloom flowers exhibited broader regulatory effects on inflammatory mediators. Gene expression analyses suggested that full-bloom flowers may exert dose-dependent regulatory effects on inflammation-related pathways, with higher doses generally associated with downregulation of genes related to nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB), mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), and apoptosis-associated signaling. These findings suggest that green buds may exert stronger effects on oxidative stress-related indicators, whereas full-bloom flowers may show broader regulatory effects on inflammatory mediators. Overall, this study provides comparative in vivo evidence and preliminary molecular support for the functional potential of Lilium flowers in nutraceutical and cosmeceutical applications.