Advances in 3D Bioprinting for Dental, Oral, and Craniofacial Regenerative Medicine

Regeneration of the dental, oral, and craniofacial (DOC) complex is challenging because mineralized, soft, vascular, and neural tissues lie side by side, and defects are often large and irregular. Three-dimensional (3D) bioprinting enables fabrication of patient-specific, cell-laden constructs and may offer new regenerative options for complex oral cases. This narrative review summarizes current bioprinting technologies, their applications across DOC tissues, and the barriers to clinical adoption. Inkjet, laser-assisted, light-based, extrusion, and co-axial platforms differ in speed, resolution, cell viability, and cost, while intraoperative bioprinting allows constructs to be printed directly into the defect during surgery. Hydrogel-based bioinks, often loaded with cells or growth factors, support cell delivery and guided differentiation. Across the dentin–pulp complex, periodontium, gingiva, salivary glands, peripheral nerves, cartilage, and craniofacial bone, preclinical studies report that bioprinted constructs can recreate tissue microarchitecture, enhance vascularization, and support partial functional repair. Whole-tooth and load-bearing bone regeneration remain constrained by spatial patterning, vascularization, and mechanical demands. Most evidence remains preclinical, and translation is limited by cost, fragmented workflows, biological and mechanical mismatch at tissue interfaces, and unclear regulatory pathways. Standardized fidelity and viability metrics, improved bioinks, and point-of-care workflows will be needed before bioprinting becomes part of routine oral regenerative care.