Acute Physiological, Biomechanical, and Affective Responses to Three Auditory Environments During Perceptually Regulated Treadmill Running: A Randomized Controlled Trial

Background/Objectives: This trial compared acute physiological, biomechanical, and affective responses to three auditory environments—classical music with binaural beats (CB), standardized negative verbal statements (NVS; registered as negative augmented feedback), and white noise (WN)—during perceptually regulated treadmill running. Methods: Sixty-six recreational runners completed an auditory-stimulus-free baseline session and, 14 days later, a 20 min treadmill run at a self-regulated speed (RPE 10–11) under one randomly allocated condition (n = 22 each; open-label). Primary outcomes were oxygen cost during perceptually regulated running and PANAS positive and negative affect; secondary outcomes were spatiotemporal gait variables, flow, and perceived controlling behavior (CCBS; manipulation check). Inference was based on a post hoc participant-level joint multilevel model of all eight outcomes with Holm correction. Results: After Holm adjustment across the eight outcomes, no joint omnibus test other than the manipulation check was statistically detectable (adjusted omnibus p = 0.37–1.00). The smallest within-outcome pairwise result was for negative affect (CB − NVS −1.69 points, unadjusted 95% CI −3.25 to −0.13; Holm-adjusted pairwise p = 0.096). Perceived controlling behavior increased in NVS only (CB − NVS −33.6 points, 95% CI −39.4 to −27.9). Randomization supports comparison of the three complete auditory conditions as delivered; because no silent control arm was included and the baseline session always preceded the intervention session, neither absolute benefits over silence nor the effects of individual stimulus components can be isolated. The PANAS and SFSS were administered as unvalidated research-team translations, and the interval from exercise cessation to questionnaire completion was not recorded. No adverse events were observed or spontaneously reported; harms were not systematically elicited. Conclusions: No primary outcome showed a statistically detectable differential change between conditions; NVS was perceived as markedly more controlling, supporting the intended manipulation check. Trial registration: CRIS KCT0012376 (retrospectively registered).