A Two‐Stage Sequential Optimisation Framework for Coordinated Operation of Conventional Bus and Demand‐Responsive Transit During Non‐Peak Hours

ABSTRACT

During non‐peak periods, conventional buses (CB) often operate with low load factors, resulting in inefficient vehicle utilisation. To address this issue, this study develops a two‐stage sequential optimisation framework for coordinated operation of CB and demand‐responsive transit (DRT). In the first stage, DRT routing and scheduling are optimised using an improved genetic algorithm. In the second stage, a grid search algorithm determines the optimal CB departure interval for the remaining passenger demand. The framework is evaluated using Beijing bus IC card data and compared with the existing CB‐only operation mode. Results indicate that the proposed scheme improves operational efficiency, while the increase in passenger waiting time remains limited. In the upstream and downstream directions, total system costs decrease by 12.88% and 4.50%, respectively, while the average load factors of CB vehicles increase by 23.39% and 12.20%. The findings demonstrate the effectiveness of integrating DRT with conventional bus services and provide practical support for optimising public transport operations during non‐peak periods.