A review of ecological consequences of emerging counter-urbanisation

Global narratives emphasise an increasingly urban world, yet the emerging parallel dynamics of counter-urbanisation, the population redistribution from higher- to lower-density settlements, is reshaping human–ecological relations. However, existing evidence on the ecological consequences associated with counter-urbanisation remains fragmented and lacks a unified framework to reconcile the diverse risks and opportunities. This review develops a framework for assessing these effects through two primary mechanisms: landscape pathways, involving the physical modification of landscapes through settlements and infrastructure development, and lifestyle pathways, reflecting changes in human presence, mobility, recreation, and consumption that do not directly alter land cover. By linking these pathways to different landscape contexts and relocation motivations, the review provides an ecological interpretation of counter-urbanisation. The framework can thereby inform policies that manage trade-offs, realise potential benefits and limit emerging pressures in an increasingly mobile world.