A Multilevel Analysis Unraveling Contrast Effects in Perceived Bullying Victimization

Abstract

Would schools or countries with higher safety risks desensitize students and diminish their perception of bullying? This study explored the relationship between bullying, safety risks, and the contrast effect using data from the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) 2022 survey. Multilevel regression analyses were conducted to examine students’ perceptions of being bullied in general, being bullied relationally, and being bullied physically/verbally and the relationship with safety risks at the student (L1), school (L2), and country (L3) levels. The study examined whether students in schools and countries with higher safety risks would perceive lower levels of bullying victimisation, as predicted by the frame-of-reference theory. Results indicated clear contrast effects at school and country levels, with students experiencing more safety risks perceiving less bullying victimisation. This finding highlights the importance of context in shaping students’ perceptions of bullying victimisation and suggests that contextual factors influence how bullying is experienced and reported.