A global review of Livestock Guardian Donkeys (LGDks) in the prevention of carnivore depredation

Conflict between humans and carnivores, known as Human-Carnivore Conflict (HCC), has existed throughout history, with recent escalations attributed to anthropogenic expansion and intensified resource competition. Conflict with carnivores primarily stems from livestock depredation, resulting in economic losses that threaten livelihoods. These conflicts pose significant challenges for affected human communities and carnivore conservation. Non-lethal mitigation strategies, particularly livestock guardian animals (LGAs), are widely used, yet rigorous tests of species-specific effectiveness remain limited. Among LGAs, livestock-guardian donkeys (LGDks) are especially understudied despite widespread use. This paper synthesises findings from an extensive review of 58 global studies on LGDk use and efficacy, examining contextual factors influencing their success and the carnivore species involved in depredation events. We found substantial research gaps, with only 5.1% of reviewed literature consisting of experimental studies. Research discrepancies were also identified across carnivore species involved in depredation events, which encompassed six carnivore families and 27 wild species, including seven classified as threatened. Our findings indicate that donkeys can be effective livestock guardians due to their protective herding instincts, accessibility, cost-effectiveness, and low maintenance requirements. However, critical knowledge gaps persist regarding their practical application, access to reliable information, and tested use in diverse contexts, which could either impede or enhance their effectiveness. Empirical research is needed to refine effective non-lethal strategies, enhance human-carnivore coexistence, and better inform carnivore conservation efforts.