A comprehensive review on Bakhr al-Fam (Halitosis): Etiologies, contributing factors, and management in conventional and Unani medicine

Abstract

Unani medicine (UM) is one of the oldest medical traditions that has long been dedicated to preventing and treating various health conditions. Its extensive literature documents diseases affecting humans since ancient times, focusing on oral health, its management, and maintaining oral hygiene. There is comprehensive information in classical Unani literature about medicinal herbs that Unani physicians used for treating halitosis. A systematic search was conducted using PubMed, PubMed Central, MEDLINE, ScienceDirect, Google Scholar, Springer, and classical libraries for studies published between 2003 and 2024. The review included in vitro , preclinical, and clinical studies that validated Unani concepts using modern pharmacological parameters. Relevant keywords such as halitosis, Bakhr al-Fam (halitosis), bad breath, and oral hygiene were used for the search. According to UM, Bakhr al-Fam is defined as a condition in which foul smell arises from the mouth or nasal passages. This review aims to draw parallels between the conceptual frameworks of halitosis in conventional medicine and UM. It discusses the etiology, classification, prevention, and treatment of halitosis documented in the classical tradition of UM. It also presents research and evidence regarding some of the commonly used drugs for halitosis acclaimed in UM.