A Comprehensive Review of Fuel Cell Technologies for Renewable Power Systems: Fundamentals, Materials, System Integration, Techno‐Economics, Standardisation, and Middle Eastern Stationary Deployment

ABSTRACT

Fuel cell (FC) technologies are gaining increasing recognition as key enabling systems for low‐carbon stationary energy conversion, distributed power generation, renewable energy integration, combined heat and power, and long‐duration hydrogen energy storage. This review provides a comprehensive assessment of FC technology from fundamental, material, system, economic, regulatory and regional deployment perspectives. In this paper, the main types of FCs are reviewed, including proton exchange membrane FCs, solid oxide FCs, alkaline FCs, molten carbonate FCs, phosphoric acid FCs, and direct methanol FCs in terms of their working principles, electrochemical reactions, performance, advantages and disadvantages, and applicability. Special focus is on FC materials such as membranes, catalysts, gas diffusion layers, bipolar plates, and balance‐of‐plant components, which have a strong impact on efficiency, durability, degradation behaviour, and system cost. The review also addresses techniques for testing and characterising FCs, including electrochemical, thermal, structural, and durability assessments, as well as parameter‐estimation approaches used to improve modelling accuracy and performance prediction. Evaluation of commercial feasibility is done through techno‐economic indicators such as levelised cost of energy, net present cost, capital cost, replacement cost, and operational cost. Also, the integration of FCs with renewable energy systems, hydrogen storage, power‐conditioning units, and hybrid energy‐management strategies are included. Furthermore, artificial intelligence and data‐driven approaches for voltage forecasting, degradation assessment, fault diagnosis, parameter estimation, and energy‐management optimisation are critically reviewed for stationary renewable FC systems, with emphasis on data quality, interpretability, uncertainty, generalisation, computational requirements, and real‐time implementation. Finally, the review assesses the limited available evidence for stationary and identifies regional requirements related to high ambient temperature, cooling, dust exposure, water availability, hydrogen supply, and field validation.